Women's Work in Urban Bangladesh: Is there an Economic Rationale?
Simeen Mahmud
Copyright Institute of Social Studies 1997
ABSTRACT
The general phenomenon that women in Bangladesh engage less frequently in market work than men is commonly explained as the lack of response of female labour to economic imperatives due to the overarching influence of purdah. However, this emphasis on a cultural rationale for gender-differentiated work behaviour diverts attention away from the deep-rooted economic inequalities at the societal level. This article examines women's work in urban Bangladesh from a female labour supply and demand perspective that is rooted in the socio-economic institutional context. The study finds that, despite the strong gender segregation of economic roles, women's roles are more flexible and lend themselves to changing household strategies more easily compared to men's. The evidence indicates that female labour market participation is largely the outcome of the supply effect shaped by the pattern of gender roles and gender-specific access to human capital. Consequently, women are relegated to low-skill market activities and have lower earnings than men, even without any overt discrimination in labour demand. The covert discrimination that leads women to pursue a different pattern of labour use than men is the fundamental gender bias of socio-economic institutions that govern household allocational decisions and dictate gender-specific behaviour.
Saturday, January 30, 2010
The garment and shrimp processing industries are the highest employers of female laborers. Forty-three percent of women work in the agriculture,
The garment and shrimp processing industries are the highest employers of female laborers. Forty-three percent of women work in the agriculture, fisheries, and livestock sectors, but 70 percent of them are unpaid family laborers. Many women work as manual laborers on construction projects as well, and constitute nearly 25 percent of all manufacturing workers. Women also are found in the electronics, food processing, beverage, and handicraft industries.
Sources:
Bangladesh: Country Reports on Human Rights Practices (2000) http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2000/sa/692.htm
ADB Country Briefing Paper: Women in Bangladesh (2001)
http://www.adb.org/Documents/Books/Country_Briefing_Papers/Women_in_Bangladesh/default.asp
Sources:
Bangladesh: Country Reports on Human Rights Practices (2000) http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2000/sa/692.htm
ADB Country Briefing Paper: Women in Bangladesh (2001)
http://www.adb.org/Documents/Books/Country_Briefing_Papers/Women_in_Bangladesh/default.asp
The garment and shrimp processing industries are the highest employers of female laborers. Forty-three percent of women work in the agriculture,
The garment and shrimp processing industries are the highest employers of female laborers. Forty-three percent of women work in the agriculture, fisheries, and livestock sectors, but 70 percent of them are unpaid family laborers. Many women work as manual laborers on construction projects as well, and constitute nearly 25 percent of all manufacturing workers. Women also are found in the electronics, food processing, beverage, and handicraft industries.
Sources:
Bangladesh: Country Reports on Human Rights Practices (2000) http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2000/sa/692.htm
ADB Country Briefing Paper: Women in Bangladesh (2001)
http://www.adb.org/Documents/Books/Country_Briefing_Papers/Women_in_Bangladesh/default.asp
Sources:
Bangladesh: Country Reports on Human Rights Practices (2000) http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2000/sa/692.htm
ADB Country Briefing Paper: Women in Bangladesh (2001)
http://www.adb.org/Documents/Books/Country_Briefing_Papers/Women_in_Bangladesh/default.asp
Education and Employment
Education and Employment
For the most part, women remain in a subordinate position in society, and the Government has not acted effectively to protect their basic freedoms. Literacy rates are approximately 26 percent for women, compared with 49 percent for men. In recent years, female school enrollment has improved. Approximately 50 percent of primary and secondary school students are female. Women often are ignorant of their rights because of continued high illiteracy rates and unequal educational opportunities, and strong social stigmas and lack of economic means to obtain legal assistance frequently keep women from seeking redress in the courts. Many NGO's operate programs to raise women's awareness of their rights, and to encourage and assist them in exercising those rights.
Under the 1961 Muslim Family Ordinance, female heirs inherit less than male relatives do, and wives have fewer divorce rights than husbands. Men are permitted to have up to four wives, although this right rarely is exercised. Laws provide some protection for women against arbitrary divorce and the taking of additional wives by husbands without the first wife's consent, but the protections generally apply only to registered marriages. Marriages in rural areas often are not registered because of ignorance of the law. Under the law, a Muslim husband is required to pay his ex-wife alimony for only 3 months, but this rarely is enforced.
Employment opportunities have been stronger for women than for men in the last decade, which largely is due to the growth of the export garment industry in Dhaka and Chittagong. Eighty percent of the 1.4 million garment sector workers are women. Programs extending micro-credit to large numbers of rural women also have contributed to greater economic power for them. However, women still fill only a small fraction of other wage-earning jobs. According to a report by the Public Administration Reforms Commission publicized in October, women hold only 12 percent of government jobs, and only 2 percent of senior positions. The Government's policy to include more women in government jobs only has had limited effect. In recent years, about 15 percent of all recruits into government service have been women.
For the most part, women remain in a subordinate position in society, and the Government has not acted effectively to protect their basic freedoms. Literacy rates are approximately 26 percent for women, compared with 49 percent for men. In recent years, female school enrollment has improved. Approximately 50 percent of primary and secondary school students are female. Women often are ignorant of their rights because of continued high illiteracy rates and unequal educational opportunities, and strong social stigmas and lack of economic means to obtain legal assistance frequently keep women from seeking redress in the courts. Many NGO's operate programs to raise women's awareness of their rights, and to encourage and assist them in exercising those rights.
Under the 1961 Muslim Family Ordinance, female heirs inherit less than male relatives do, and wives have fewer divorce rights than husbands. Men are permitted to have up to four wives, although this right rarely is exercised. Laws provide some protection for women against arbitrary divorce and the taking of additional wives by husbands without the first wife's consent, but the protections generally apply only to registered marriages. Marriages in rural areas often are not registered because of ignorance of the law. Under the law, a Muslim husband is required to pay his ex-wife alimony for only 3 months, but this rarely is enforced.
Employment opportunities have been stronger for women than for men in the last decade, which largely is due to the growth of the export garment industry in Dhaka and Chittagong. Eighty percent of the 1.4 million garment sector workers are women. Programs extending micro-credit to large numbers of rural women also have contributed to greater economic power for them. However, women still fill only a small fraction of other wage-earning jobs. According to a report by the Public Administration Reforms Commission publicized in October, women hold only 12 percent of government jobs, and only 2 percent of senior positions. The Government's policy to include more women in government jobs only has had limited effect. In recent years, about 15 percent of all recruits into government service have been women.
The law prohibits rape and physical spousal abuse, but it makes no specific provision for spousal rape as a crime.
The law prohibits rape and physical spousal abuse, but it makes no specific provision for spousal rape as a crime. A total of 3,516 rapes and 3,523 incidents of spousal abuses were officially reported during the year. Of the spousal abuse cases, 2,814 were related to disputes over dowry. Of the 2,130 alleged rapists that were prosecuted, 63 persons were convicted. The Government reports that other rape cases are under trial. During the year, the Government acceded to the U.N. Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women. The Government also has enacted laws specifically prohibiting certain forms of discrimination against women, including the Anti-Dowry Prohibition Act of 1980, the Cruelty to Women Law of 1983, and the Women and Children Repression Prevention Act of 1995, which was replaced by the Women and Children Repression Prevention Act of 2000. However, enforcement of these laws is weak, especially in rural areas, and the Government seldom prosecutes those cases that are filed. According to a human rights organization, there are 7 government-run and 13 privately run large shelter homes available for use by women who are victims of violence. Some smaller homes also are available for victims of violence. However, these are insufficient to meet victims' shelter needs. As a result, the Government often holds women who file rape complaints in safe custody, usually in prison. Safe custody frequently results in further abuses against victims, discouraging the filing of complaints by other women, and often continues for extended periods during which women often are unable to gain release.
There is extensive trafficking in women for the purpose of forced prostitution within the country and to other countries in Asia.
There is extensive trafficking in women for the purpose of forced prostitution within the country and to other countries in Asia.
The law prohibits rape and physical spousal abuse, but it makes no specific provision for spousal rape as a crime.
The law prohibits rape and physical spousal abuse, but it makes no specific provision for spousal rape as a crime. A total of 3,516 rapes and 3,523 incidents of spousal abuses were officially reported during the year. Of the spousal abuse cases, 2,814 were related to disputes over dowry. Of the 2,130 alleged rapists that were prosecuted, 63 persons were convicted. The Government reports that other rape cases are under trial. During the year, the Government acceded to the U.N. Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women. The Government also has enacted laws specifically prohibiting certain forms of discrimination against women, including the Anti-Dowry Prohibition Act of 1980, the Cruelty to Women Law of 1983, and the Women and Children Repression Prevention Act of 1995, which was replaced by the Women and Children Repression Prevention Act of 2000. However, enforcement of these laws is weak, especially in rural areas, and the Government seldom prosecutes those cases that are filed. According to a human rights organization, there are 7 government-run and 13 privately run large shelter homes available for use by women who are victims of violence. Some smaller homes also are available for victims of violence. However, these are insufficient to meet victims' shelter needs. As a result, the Government often holds women who file rape complaints in safe custody, usually in prison. Safe custody frequently results in further abuses against victims, discouraging the filing of complaints by other women, and often continues for extended periods during which women often are unable to gain release.
There is extensive trafficking in women for the purpose of forced prostitution within the country and to other countries in Asia.
There is extensive trafficking in women for the purpose of forced prostitution within the country and to other countries in Asia.
Violence Against Women
Violence Against Women
Violence against women is difficult to quantify because of unreliable statistics, but recent reports
indicated that domestic violence is widespread. A report released by the U.N. Population Fund in
September asserted that 47 percent of adult women report physical abuse by their male
partner. The Government, the media, and women's rights organizations have fostered a growing
awareness of the problem of violence against women.
Much of the violence against women is related to disputes over dowries. According to a human
rights group, there were 81 dowry-related killings during the year. Human rights groups and press
reports indicate that incidents of vigilantism against women--sometimes led by religious leaders--
at times occur, particularly in rural areas. These include humiliating, painful punishments, such as
the whipping of women accused of moral offenses. Assailants who fling acid in their faces
disfigured numerous women. One human rights organization reported that 181 women suffered
acid attacks during the year. The most common motivation for acid-throwing attacks against
women is revenge by a rejected suitor; land disputes are another leading cause of the acid
attacks. Few perpetrators of the acid attacks are prosecuted. Often the perpetrator flings the
acid in through an open window during the night, making cases difficult to prove. Some arrests
have been made, and one person has been given the death sentence
Violence against women is difficult to quantify because of unreliable statistics, but recent reports
indicated that domestic violence is widespread. A report released by the U.N. Population Fund in
September asserted that 47 percent of adult women report physical abuse by their male
partner. The Government, the media, and women's rights organizations have fostered a growing
awareness of the problem of violence against women.
Much of the violence against women is related to disputes over dowries. According to a human
rights group, there were 81 dowry-related killings during the year. Human rights groups and press
reports indicate that incidents of vigilantism against women--sometimes led by religious leaders--
at times occur, particularly in rural areas. These include humiliating, painful punishments, such as
the whipping of women accused of moral offenses. Assailants who fling acid in their faces
disfigured numerous women. One human rights organization reported that 181 women suffered
acid attacks during the year. The most common motivation for acid-throwing attacks against
women is revenge by a rejected suitor; land disputes are another leading cause of the acid
attacks. Few perpetrators of the acid attacks are prosecuted. Often the perpetrator flings the
acid in through an open window during the night, making cases difficult to prove. Some arrests
have been made, and one person has been given the death sentence
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